When Chinese President Xi Jinping visited Central Asia and Southeast Asia in September and October of 2013, he raised the initiative of jointly building the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road (hereinafter referred to as the Belt and Road), which have attracted close attention from all over the world. At the China-ASEAN Expo in 2013, Chinese Premier Li Keqiang emphasized the need to build the Maritime Silk Road oriented toward ASEAN, and to create strategic propellers for hinterland development. Accelerating the building of the Belt and Road can help promote the economic prosperity of the countries along the Belt and Road and regional economic cooperation, strengthen exchanges and mutual learning between different civilizations, and promote world peace and development. It is a great undertaking that will benefit people around the world.
As an important pivot point of “One Belt, One Road”, Poland has a prominent geographic location and is the gateway for China-EU liner trains to enter the European Union. Since the transition, Poland’s economy has continued to grow at a high rate, ranking first in the European Union for many years, and is known as the “Tiger of Central and Eastern Europe”. Since 2010, China has become the world’s second largest economy, and foreign investment has begun to surpass the United States and European countries, has become Poland’s largest economic partner in Asia. Mutual benefits and win-win situation in the field of economy and trade have further strengthened the foundation of China-Poland strategic partnership. As the economic and trade relations between the two countries warming up and the level of political mutual trust increases, humanistic exchanges and cooperation have also been significantly enhanced. Especially since the China-CEE Cooperation Mechanism and the Belt and Road Initiative put forward in 2012 and 2013, under the concept of Consultation, Contribution and Shared Benefits, the two countries have made unprecedented progress since the dramatic changes in Eastern Europe in terms of policy coordination, facilities connectivity, unimpeded trade, financial integration and people-to-people bonds. The above background of cooperation has contributed to the significant elevation of Poland’s position in China’s foreign strategy.
China’s view of Poland: from superior student of transition to emerging middle power
Poland has been labeled as the Tiger of Central and Eastern Europe after its sustained economic growth since the transition in 1989. This sustained economic growth and the increase in the country’s overall strength have shaped Poland’s influence in Europe and on the international stage. Especially after becoming one of the first representatives of New Europe to join the European Union in 2004, Poland, together with the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary in the Visegrád Group, has become a significant political force influencing EU decision-making. In addition, Poland’s accession to the China-Central and Eastern European Cooperation Mechanism and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) in 2012 and 2015, respectively, has led to an unprecedented increase in Poland’s influence and visibility in Chinese society and academia. Since 2010, Poland’s role in Chinese academia has been labeled as a “superior student of transition”, an “emerging middle power” and a “representative of the new Europe”.
The heat of Polish studies in China has experienced a tendency of “hot topic, to cold topic, and back to hot topic”. As a hot topic of academic research, it started roughly after the dramatic changes in Eastern Europe to the end of the 20th century, during which Polish studies in China mainly focused on Poland’s economic, political, and social transformation, and the research issues included: “Poland: From Round Table Conference to Governmental Cabinet”[1] “Poland’s Economic Reform and Its Lessons” “A Wise Choice: Poland’s Round Table Conference” “Poland’s Economic Reform and Its Lessons” “A Wise Choice: Poland’s Round Table Conference” Reforms and Lessons Learned”[2] “A Wise Choice: The Polish Round Table”[3] “Recent U.S. Diplomatic Moves in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe”[4] “Changes within the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe and U.S. Policies “[5] “Analysis of the “domino effect” of the dramatic changes in Eastern Europe”[6] “What is Poland’s “Third Way”? ” [7]“An analysis of the development of left-wing political parties in Poland”[8] . In addition, research on Polish literature and the development of Sinology in Poland continues, such as “The Origin and Flow of Sinology in Poland”[9] “Post-war Dystopian Literature in Poland”[10] . The reason for this is the fact that the teaching of Polish in China started in the 1950s, which made it possible to translate a large number of Polish literary works into Chinese and circulate them widely in Chinese society. Representative works include the epic poem “Pan Tadeusz”(translated by Yi Lijun and Lin Hongliang, 1998), Selected Polish Poems of the 20th Century (1992), and the classical novel “the knights of the cross” (two volumes, translated by Yi Lijun and Zhang Zhenhui, 1996). The above literary works convey the strong patriotism and heroic spirit of struggle of the Polish nation. These spirits resonate with the memories of the humiliation and struggle of the Chinese nation against the invasion of the great powers since the 19th century.
Entering the late 1990s, the status and heat of the Central and Eastern European countries represented by Poland in Chinese diplomacy and academic research clearly showed a declining trend, which lasted until around the time of Poland’s accession to the European Union. During this period, on the one hand, due to the fact that Poland has basically shifted to the Western model in terms of its economic and political system and has stepped into the track of steady development; on the other hand, it also lies in the fact that Poland, which has not yet gained the status of the European Union, has less influence on the situation of the European region and Sino-European relations to the extent that China’s strategic importance to Poland has declined.
However, with the acceleration of Poland’s accession to the European Union until its formal accession in 2004, the seven countries of Central and Eastern Europe represented by Poland, as representatives of the New Europe in the EU bloc, not only exerted a hard-to-ignore influence on the EU’s decision-making, but also became a new political force restricting the development of Sino-European relations. Against this background, Chinese European academics have engaged in heated discussions on the political and economic implications of Poland and the CEE countries’ accession to the EU, which at one time led to a short-lived mini-boom in Polish studies in Chinese European academics. Academic research results in this period include: “The Politics of Double Eastern Expansion – NATO and EU Enlargement and Their Impacts on the Perception of Europe”[11] ” From Moscow to Brussels：Political Changes and the Preservation and Concession of National Sovereignty in Eastern Europe”[12] ” From the “Weimar Triangle” to the “Polish Phenomenon” — The Game of Interests in the EU’s Eastern Enlargement and Integration”[13] “A Review of the ‘Polish Phenomenon’ in the EU’s Eastern Enlargement”[14] ” An Experimental Analysis of the Impact of EU Enlargement on the Party Systems of the New Central and Eastern European Member States–An Appraisal of Euroskepticism in the Party Systems”[15] “An Experimental Analysis of the ‘Post-Accession Syndrome’ in Central and Eastern Europe “[16] . It should be noted that among the 16 CEE countries, Poland is the country with the most successful economic transformation and the greatest achievements among the post-accession new European countries. There is a broad consensus on this point among Chinese academics. For example, Chinese scholar Ma Xipu in his article “Achievements and Problems of Poland’s 10 Years of Accession to the European Union” puts forward: “Poland’s status and role in the EU have been increasing, and it is regarded as the ‘best student’ of the transformation of Central and Eastern Europe. “[17] .
The last stage is the period after 2012 to the present, with the introduction of the China-CEE cooperation mechanism and the Belt and Road Initiative, Poland has become one of the important comprehensive strategic partners in China’s European strategy, due to its unique geopolitical location and its position as the most important political force in the New Europe. On the one hand, this can be seen in the themes of European studies in Chinese academia after 2012. In particular, “16+1 cooperation” has been coined as a new academic and diplomatic term and has appeared frequently in several key journals in China. Research themes include: “An Analysis of the Operation Mode of ’16+1 Cooperation’ from the Perspective of Interregionalism”[18] “Opening the China-Central and Eastern Europe ’16+1 Cooperation’ New Era”[19] “An Introduction to the Pattern of Major Powers’ Interests in Central and Eastern Europe and Their Impact on 16+1 Cooperation”[20] “Japan’s Central and Eastern Europe Policy and its Impact on China’s ’16+1 Cooperation’ Impact Analysis”[21] . Especially in terms of Poland’s identity, many Chinese scholars define Poland as an emerging “middle power” in their academic research[22] . A representative article is “Poland’s Middle Power Diplomacy – Identity Positioning, Role Expectations and Diplomatic Preferences”[23]. According to the article, “Poland’s middle-power status has been shaped by a combination of significant economic achievements since the transition, the perception of the domestic political elite as a regional power, and the increased recognition of the country by the international community. The establishment of the middle-power status has constructed the expectations of Poland’s middle-power role, which has driven Poland to play the roles of “mediator between East and West Europe”, “staunch ally in transatlantic relations”, and “seeker of great power status in the European region” in the international community since the dramatic changes in Eastern Europe.”[24]
On the other hand, research institutions and Polish language teaching centers around Polish studies in China have also flourished since 2012. Between 2012 and 2020 alone, 14 new Polish language teaching programs were established in Chinese universities. [25]As of today, the total number of Polish language teaching centers exceeds 20 universities. In addition, the number of country-specific research institutes named “Polish studies” set up by Chinese universities has reached six, such as: the Center for Polish Studies at Beijing Foreign Studies University, the Center for Polish Studies at Beijing International Studies University, the Center for Polish and Central and Eastern European Studies at Sichuan University, the Center for Polish Studies at Northeastern University, the Center for Polish Studies at Xi’an International Studies University, and the Center for Polish Studies at Ningbo Institute of Technology of Zhejiang University. The research institutes named after Central and Eastern European Studies that include Poland are more than 20, and the representative institutes include the Center for Central and Eastern European Studies at Beijing Foreign Studies University, the Institute of Central and Eastern European Studies at Tongji University, the Center for Central and Eastern European Studies at Shanghai University of International Business and Economics, the Center for Central and Eastern European Studies at Zhejiang University, the Institute for Cooperation with Central and Eastern European Countries in Ningbo, and the Center for Central and Eastern European Studies at East China Normal University, and so on. It is worth mentioning that the Center for European Studies at Chongqing Jiaotong University has been compiling and publishing the Polish Development Report (2021) every year since 2022, which is the first annual research report in China that systematically researches and introduces Poland’s political, economic, cultural, social and other development profiles, with a word count of more than 100,000 words. As can be seen from the above, the importance that Chinese society attaches to Poland, as well as the important position of Poland in China’s foreign strategy, has been significantly increased.
二、China-Poland Relations Yesterday: From Friendship Partnership to Comprehensive Strategic Partnership
As an independent, peace-loving regional power with a long history and culture, Poland plays an important role in peace in the European region and the world. China and Poland have a long history of bilateral relations, having shared similar memories of suffering during World War II, and in the early post-World War II period, the two countries supported each other, looked out for each other and established a profound friendship. China and Poland have a long history of mutual political trust. Poland declared its recognition of the People’s Republic of China on October 5, 1949, and established diplomatic relations with China at the ambassadorial level on October 7, which was one of the first countries to recognize and establish diplomatic relations with the new PRC. In the 1950s, Sino-Polish relations were in a period of comprehensive development. The two countries supported each other and cooperated closely. High-level visits were frequent, and Chinese leaders Zhou Enlai, Zhu De, Peng Dehuai and He Long visited Poland. Polish leaders such as Beirut, Ohab and Sierenkiewicz have also visited China. China supports Poland’s initiative for a nuclear-free zone in Central Europe. Poland supported China’s struggle against the United States, for national reunification and for the restoration of its legitimate seat in the United Nations. Founded on 15 June 1951, Sino-Polish was a joint venture between the Governments of China and Poland in order to break the embargo and blockade imposed by the West. Starting from four old ships, Sino-Polish opened up the first ocean shipping route between Asia and Europe. China’s urgently needed construction materials were constantly transported back to China through Sino-Polish ships, and exported goods were also shipped to all over the world through Sino-Polish routes, and the connection between China and the world became closer and closer. In just one year after its establishment, CWS had transported back to China the equipment needed by 52 factories, and also carried paraffin, rubber and other materials that were in short supply in China at that time, thus contributing to the economic construction in the early period of the founding of the PRC.[26]
At the end of 2011, the President of Poland visited China, and the two countries established a “strategic partnership”.In 2016, Chinese President Xi Jinping was invited to pay a state visit to Poland, which was warmly received by President Duda, and the two heads of state agreed to upgrade bilateral relations from a “strategic partnership” to a “comprehensive strategic partnership”.[27] It should be noted that China’s foreign relations network, characterized by “partnership”, is different from the long-standing system of alliances in the Western world. The “partnership” network advocated by China is a profound inheritance and continuation of its non-aligned policy since the 1950s, namely, “partnership but not alliance”. Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), under the leadership of head of state diplomacy, China has made friends widely and deeply, and its global partnership network has been expanding. Almost every major diplomatic activity of General Secretary Xi Jinping has led to an increase or upgrade in China’s foreign partnerships. At present, of the 182 countries with which China has established diplomatic relations, nearly 100 countries with the term “partner” in the positioning of their bilateral relations are on all five continents. In addition, China has established different forms of partnerships with more than 10 regional and district organizations, including the European Union, the African Union, ASEAN and the Arab League.
At present, China’s partnerships are categorized into five tiers: First, general partnerships. The first category is general partnership, such as the “Friendship Partnership” with Jamaica and the “New Type of Cooperative Partnership” with Finland. The second category includes partnerships labeled “comprehensive” or “all-round”. For example, with the Netherlands, Croatia and other countries “comprehensive partnership”. The third category is general strategic partnerships. For example, “strategic partnership” with India, South Korea, etc., “strategic partnership” with Nigeria, Canada, Ukraine, etc., and “friendly strategic partnership” with Austria. The fourth category is the strategic partnership labeled as “comprehensive”, “global” and “all-round”, such as the “New Era Comprehensive Strategic Collaboration Partnership” with Russia, the “Friendship and Strategic Partnership” with Vietnam, the United States, and the United Kingdom. For example, the “New Era Comprehensive Strategic Collaborative Partnership” with Russia, the “Comprehensive Strategic Partnership” with nearly 20 countries, including Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia and Kenya, the “Comprehensive Strategic Partnership” with ASEAN, the European Union and Poland,
and the “All-round Strategic Partnership” with Germany. All-round Strategic Partnership” with Germany. The fifth and highest level is the “all-weather” and “permanent” strategic partnership, including the “all-weather strategic partnership” with Pakistan, Belarus and Venezuela, the “all-weather strategic partnership” with Kazakhstan.[28]In the Chinese diplomatic lexicon, “partnership” means mutual trust and adherence to the principle of “seeking common ground while reserving differences”. Most of the “partnerships” that China has established with other countries, regions or regional organizations are qualified by such terms as “strategic”, “cooperative” and “comprehensive”. “and other qualifiers. Taken together, those with which China has established “strategic” partnerships often play a relatively important role in regional or international affairs. A “comprehensive” partnership, on the other hand, usually implies that the relationship has reached a relatively high level of maturity and institutionalization, with close cooperation in various fields, including political, economic, humanistic, international and regional affairs. [29]
- From Strategic Engagement to “Friendly Partnerships” in seeking common ground while reserving differences (1989-2004)
After the end of the Cold War, in the international context of peace and development gradually becoming the two major themes in the changing world pattern, with the comprehensive transformation of Poland’s political system and mode of economic development, the political, economic and trade exchanges between China and Poland have declined. However, the two countries still reached a political consensus on matters of mutual interest, that is, China insisted on respecting the sovereignty of Poland and the choice of the Polish people, transcending the differences in social systems, ideologies and development paths, and maintaining and developing relations on the basis of the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. The exchange of visits between Qian Qichen and Krzysztof Skubiszewski, the foreign ministers of the two countries in 1991, enhanced mutual understanding and vigorously promoted normal development of the relations between the two countries. In 1993, Vice Premiers Zou Jiahua and Goleszewski exchanged visits and signed a new agreement on Sino-Polish economic and trade relations; in September 1994, Polish Prime Minister Pawlak visited China and signed nine cooperation agreements and letters of intent; and from November 16 to 21, 1997, Polish President Aleksander Kwaśniewski paid a state visit to China at the invitation of the President of the People’s Republic of China, Jiang Zemin, which was the first official visit to China by a Polish head of state in 38 years. The two heads of state signed the Joint Communiqué of the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Poland. [30]The leaders of the two countries exchanged views on the current state of bilateral relations and good prospects for their development, as well as on international issues of common concern.
The two sides shared the view that the development of cooperation between the two countries in various fields is the common aspiration of the peoples of the two countries, which not only serves the fundamental interests of the two countries and is conducive to peace and development in Asia and Europe. The two sides will develop long-term, stable relations of friendship and cooperation on the basis of mutual respect for independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity, equality and mutual benefit, non-interference in each other’s internal affairs and other generally recognized norms of international law. The Parties consider the development of mutually beneficial economic and trade cooperation to be a very important goal of bilateral relations. The two sides reaffirmed their mutual respect for each other’s choice of economic and social development paths. In addition, China fully understands and respects Poland’s efforts to integrate with Euro-Atlantic and European mechanisms, appreciates Poland’s continued policy of developing cooperation with countries around the world, including those in the Asia-Pacific region, and highly values Poland’s role and contribution to the maintenance of peace in Europe and the world.[31]
In the 21st century, with the rapid growth of China’s economy and the continuous enhancement of its comprehensive strength, the relationship between China and the EU has entered a new fast track. In 1998, China and the EU established a long-term, stable and constructive partnership for the 21st century. In 2001, the two sides established a comprehensive partnership; and in 2003, the EU and China established a comprehensive strategic partnership, and the Chinese government issued its first policy paper on the EU. [32]Since Poland joined the EU in 2004, as the most important country in the new Europe with the highest economic growth rate and political influence, it has become a new driving force and growth point for the steady development of China-EU relations. At the same time, 2004 coincided with the 55th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Poland. At the invitation of the President of the Republic of Poland, Aleksander Kwasniewski, President of the People’s Republic of China, Mr. Hu Jintao, paid a state visit to Poland from June 8 to 10, 2004, and jointly issued the “Joint Declaration of the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Poland”, and established the “Friendship and Cooperative Partnership” between China and Poland. The two sides are of the view that China-Poland relations have been developing smoothly in recent years, and the two sides have formed a consultation mechanism in the fields of foreign affairs, economy and trade, science and technology, and achieved a series of results in cooperation in various fields. The two sides reaffirmed their respect for each other’s development paths and internal and external policies in accordance with their national conditions. At the same time, they are willing to engage in constructive dialogues and exchanges in the political, economic, social, values and human rights fields, based on the principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences.
More importantly, the Chinese side highly recognizes the strategic importance of Poland in terms of its international status and influence. China regards Poland as an important country in Central and Eastern Europe, appreciates Poland’s achievements in economic and social development in recent years, and plays a constructive role in the region and the European integration process,” the joint statement said. It is believed that Poland’s membership in the European Union will promote new development in China-Poland relations.”[33]
(ii) Evolution from “friendly cooperative partnership ” to “strategic partners” (2005-2011)
After joining the European Union, Poland has not only integrated into the single market of the EU economically and accelerated its economic development in the context of the free flow of goods, capital, labor and services, but also enhanced its political status. The dimension of cooperation in China-Poland relations has also expanded from a single bilateral dimension to “bilateral + multilateral” cooperation. In other words, the European Union has injected new impetus into the development of China-Poland relations. In 2003, China-EU relations were upgraded to a comprehensive strategic partnership. Therefore, as the most important country of New Europe in the EU, Poland’s policy towards China will also become an important factor affecting China-EU relations.
Since then, the frequency of high-level political visits between China and Poland has been significantly increased. In March 2006, Foreign Minister Stefan Meller visited China and met with Premier Wen Jiabao and Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing respectively. In April of the same year, Chinese Vice Premier Hui Liangyu visited Poland and met with Vice Premier and Minister of Finance Kirovska, President Kaczyński and Prime Minister Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz, and in September, Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao met with Polish Prime Minister Kaczyński during the Sixth Asia-Europe Summit.In 2007, the pragmatic Tusk became Prime Minister, and Poland’s trade policy with China has become more active, and its political status in the EU has become more and more important. Poland’s trade policy toward China has become more active since Tusk became prime minister in 2007, and its political status in the European Union has grown, with the two countries entering a new era of strategic importance. For example, judging from the annual diplomatic reports delivered by the Polish foreign minister to the Sejm in the past, there is a noteworthy phenomenon that China is almost invisible in Poland’s official diplomatic priorities or reports. This phenomenon suggests that China is of low strategic importance to Poland. In the order of diplomatic priorities of the current Polish government, the European Union and the United States are at the top of the list, followed by Russia and the six Eastern Partnership countries. The Asia-Pacific region is of little strategic interest to a medium-sized subregional power like Poland and is therefore not among its diplomatic priorities. However, when compared to China, Poland’s economic and trade relations with India, Japan and China are even closer than its trade with China. The turning point came in 2008, when then-Prime Minister Tusk paid an official visit to China and attended the 7th Asia-Europe Summit, it was the first Polish prime minister to visit China since 1994. Poland’s “Going China” strategy has widely promoted dialogue and cooperation between Polish companies and Chinese investors, with a number of programs aimed at expanding energy, agricultural and technological cooperation. [34]Since then, the economic and trade relations between China and Poland have grown closer. As Tusk said during his meeting with Premier Wen Jiabao, “China and the Central European region are symbols of success and development in the world. Poland and China have a long history of economic cooperation, such as the establishment of Chipolbrok in 1951, the first Chinese-foreign joint venture in China. Today, Poland serves as China’s largest economic partner in Central and Eastern Europe, but for a long time trade and investment exchanges between the two countries have remained at a low level.”[35]
The visit was warmly welcomed and received by then Chinese President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao. On the following day, Tusk, together with a Polish trade and economic delegation, took part in the 7th Asia-Europe Summit in China, where the two sides exchanged views mainly on increasing trade relations. Subsequently, China lifted embargoes and barriers to the sale of Polish foodstuffs, especially pork, and in 2010 Poland was invited to participate in Expo 2010 in Shanghai, and in December 2011 Polish President Komorowski followed Tusk’s visit to China. Chinese President Hu Jintao and Polish President Bronislaw Komorowski had a frank and in-depth exchange of views on deepening bilateral relations and international and regional issues of common concern, reached a broad consensus and jointly issued the Joint Declaration of the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Poland on the Establishment of Strategic Partnership. The two sides positively evaluated the traditional friendship between China and Poland, noting that since the establishment of diplomatic relations 62 years ago. Especially after the establishment of the friendship and partnership in 2004, the cooperation between the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Poland has been steadily expanding in various fields such as politics, economy, humanities and international affairs, and has yielded rich results. The two sides agreed that expanding and deepening China-Poland relations is in line with the common aspirations and fundamental interests of the two peoples, and will help safeguard world peace and development and promote harmonious coexistence of all countries. [36]To this end, the two sides decided to upgrade bilateral relations to a strategic partnership. Since then, China-Poland relations have been transformed from a partnership to a strategic partnership, opening up a new period of bilateral economic and trade, political and humanistic cooperation.
(iii) From “Strategic Partner” to ” Comprehensive Strategic Partnership ” (2012-present)
China’s strategic importance for Poland increased significantly after 2012. One of the landmark events was the creation in April 2012 of the “China-CEE Leaders’ Meeting” mechanism. Another important event was the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by Chinese President Xi Jinping in 2013. The Polish government responded positively to this initiative, and Poland was one of the first countries in Central and Eastern Europe to apply for membership in the Chinese-led Asian Investment Bank (ADB) as a founding member. [37]With these two initiatives, Poland’s position and role in China’s European strategy has been significantly enhanced.
First of all, there is the China-Central and Eastern European Cooperation Mechanism, which is actively supported by 16 Central and Eastern European countries, including Poland, and the first leaders’ meeting was held in Warsaw. This shows the unique and irreplaceable role played by Poland in promoting the China-CEE Cooperation Mechanism initiated by China. Liu Zuokui, a Chinese scholar of European studies, has pointed out that “China-CEE cooperation is a trans-regional cooperation mechanism designed and promoted by China on its own initiative in response to changes in the international situation and the needs of Central and Eastern European countries”[38] . The international background of the establishment of this mechanism is precisely in the context of China’s booming economic development, Europe’s experience of the financial crisis in 2008 and the Greek debt crisis in 2009, the major powers of the European Union and the single market internal demand growth is weak. The above objectively promote as a representative of the new Europe of the Central and Eastern European countries and China to carry out active economic and trade cooperation. The increase in economic and trade interactions has also objectively further promoted the proximity of the two sides in terms of mutual political trust and humanistic exchanges.
Second is the position and role of Poland within the framework of the Belt and Road Initiative. Poland was one of the first countries to join the Belt and Road Initiative and is a founding member of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), which not only widens Poland’s circle of international friends, but also enhances its global influence outside the European Union. The Three Seas Initiative launched by Poland in 2015 is highly compatible with the development goals of China and the Belt and Road Initiative. Both focus on connectivity in various fields, including infrastructure development. As a symbolic brand of “One Belt, One Road”, the “China-Europe Railway Express” has operated 81,000 trains in the past 10 years, which has shipped more than 7.6 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs) of goods worth over 340 billion U.S. dollars and reaching more than 200 cities in 25 European countries, creating a new pattern of international transportation between Asia and Europe and setting up a new platform for economic and trade cooperation along the routes. Poland is located at the “crossroads” of Europe, with a superior geographic location, and is the gateway for the ” China-Europe Railway Express ” under the “Belt and Road” Initiative to enter the Western European market, with about 90% of the China-Europe Railway Express transiting or arriving in Warsaw. The expansion of train freight hubs on the eastern border and the construction of new railroad logistics centers in central cities have become important bridges connecting Europe and Asia under the “Belt and Road” initiative. [39]As an important economic and trade partner of China, Poland has been China’s largest trading partner in Central and Eastern Europe since 2005. In 2021, the trade value between China and Poland amounted to 42.13 billion U.S. dollars, a year-on-year increase of 35.7%, of which, China’s exports will be $36.59 billion, up 36.9 percent year-on-year, and imports will be $5.54 billion, up 28.3 percent year-on-year. In 2022, trade between China and Poland was $43.22 billion, up 2.7 per cent year-on-year. Among them, China’s exports will be $38.16 billion, up 4.5 percent year-on-year, and imports will be $5.06 billion, down 8.7 percent.
As the first trans-regional multilateral cooperation mechanism initiated by China, the China-Central and Eastern European Cooperation has a demonstration effect on the promotion of the Belt and Road Initiative in Europe. In the 11 years since its creation, the cooperation mechanism has practiced the development concept of “extensive consultation, joint contribution and shared benefits ” advocated by the Belt and Road Initiative, and has brought economic opportunities to the countries along the route, led by Poland, as well as promoting dialogue and connectivity between the two civilizations of the East and the West. As President Xi Jinping pointed out at the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China: actively promote international cooperation on the “Belt and Road”, strive to realize policy coordination, connectivity of infrastructure and facilities, unimpeded trade, financial integration, and people-to-people bonds, creating a new platform for international cooperation, and add new impetus for common development. As an important region along the “Belt and Road”, the CEE region occupies an important position in promoting the construction of the “Belt and Road”. As a platform for cooperation between China and the 16 countries of Central and Eastern Europe, China-CEE Cooperation has made great contributions to promoting cooperation and development between China and Poland, which is not only conducive to cooperation between China and Europe, but also beneficial to the smooth progress of the construction of the Belt and Road.[40]
As President Xi Jinping emphasized during his visit to Warsaw in 2016 and his meeting with President Duda, “China views and develops its relations with the EU from a strategic and long-term perspective. China and the EU are taking the 40th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations as an opportunity to comprehensively promote the four partnerships of peace, growth, reform and civilization, and promote the interface between the Belt and Road Initiative and the EU’s development strategy. It is hoped that the Polish side will play an active role in influencing the EU and promoting the development of the China-EU comprehensive strategic partnership. I hope the Polish side will continue to pay attention to and support the “China-CEE Cooperation”[41] . The visit also led to the release of a joint statement on the China-Poland comprehensive strategic partnership, which upgraded Poland’s status in China’s strategic foreign policy positioning from “strategic partner” to “comprehensive strategic partner”.
III. Sino-Polish Relations Today: Poland’s Position in Current Chinese Diplomatic Strategy and China’s Strategic Expectations
The current development of Sino-Polish relations has been severely impacted by the Russian-Ukrainian conflict from February 2022 onwards. The occurrence of this conflict has led the international order, which has been characterized by peace and development since the end of the Cold War, to give way to an international order dominated by security and development. Especially for the Central and Eastern European countries, which are in a geopolitical rupture zone, security interests have become the diplomatic priority of most countries, thus inevitably bringing a great impact on the pragmatic cooperation under the framework of China-CEE cooperation. For example, since February 2021, when the China-CEE Leaders’ Online Summit was held, the summit has been suspended for more than two sessions.
However, it should be noted that the tone and expectations of China-Poland strategic cooperation of seeking common ground while reserving differences, win-win cooperation, mutual assistance and strategic mutual needs have not changed substantially. Nor has Poland’s strategic position in China’s foreign relations been shaken. China’s strategic expectations of Poland’s unique and indispensable role in regional peace and development affairs are even higher. The reason for this is that Poland is not only one of the leading powers in Central and Eastern Europe, but has also gained significant influence on the EU’s foreign and security policy since the UK’s departure, especially in the eastern part of the EU, where Poland launched the Eastern Partnership Initiative with Sweden in 2009, which has served as a strategic guideline for the eastern part of the EU’s policy. In addition, Poland, like China, has a tradition of independent diplomacy, and the Polish President, Mr. Duda, was the only head of state of an EU member state from the Central and Eastern European region to attend the opening ceremony of the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing. The day after the opening ceremony, Chinese President Xi Jinping met cordially with President Duda at the Great Hall of the People. Xi pointed out that the fact that Mr. Duda made a special trip to China to fulfill the Winter Olympics promise he made more than five years ago reflects that the friendship between China and Poland has stood the test of the international winds and clouds, and also reflects the two sides’ adherence to the Olympic spirit. We are gentlemen’s friends who emphasize trust and righteousness. I am willing to work with you to lead the long-term healthy and stable development of China-Poland relations for the betterment of the two peoples. Duda said, I always remember the “Winter Olympic promise” that President Xi Jinping made to me during his state visit to Poland five years ago, and I am very happy to be able to overcome the difficulties and come to China as promised, to share the grand excitement of the Opening Ceremony of the Beijing Winter Olympic Games with the people of China and to welcome the historic moment when Beijing became the world’s first “city of two Olympics”. “I am glad to be able to come to China despite the difficulties. In recent years, the Polish-Chinese comprehensive strategic partnership has developed well in various fields.
Returning to the context of the current Russia-Ukraine conflict, as Poland and most of the Central and Eastern European countries have indelible traumatic memories of Russia, such traumatic memories have largely shaped Poland’s view of Russia. This traumatic memory is like China’s view of Japan. Therefore, since the outbreak of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict, China, as always, has maintained a neutral position and insisted on the use of political means to resolve the Russian-Ukrainian conflict. This is because China has always advocated the concept of “harmony” in its political thinking from ancient times to the present. This philosophy is deeply reflected in the three major initiatives on new concepts of global governance proposed by China in 2023: the Global Development Initiative, the Global Security Initiative, and the Global Civilization Initiative.2022 On April 21, 2022, President Xi Jinping delivered a keynote speech titled “Working Together to Meet Challenges, Cooperating to Pursue the Future” in a video presentation at the opening ceremony of the annual meeting of the Boao Forum for Asia (Boao Forum for Asia), and for the first time, he put forward the Global Security Initiative. He systematically elaborated China’s position and propositions on promoting world peace and security and maintaining world peace and tranquility, emphasizing that mankind is an indivisible security community. China advocates a common, comprehensive, cooperative and sustainable security concept as the conceptual guide, mutual respect as the basic guideline, indivisibility of security as the important principle, and the building of a security community as the long-term goal, so as to walk out a new type of security path of dialogue rather than confrontation, partnership rather than alliance, and win-win rather than zero-sum. To summarize, the development vision of the security initiatives proposed by China aims to build a world of solidarity, unity and collaboration, free from fear and with universal security. In order to realize that vision, China needs to carry out bilateral and multilateral security cooperation with other countries and international and regional organizations under the framework of the Global Security Initiative, and actively promote the interface of security concepts and the integration of interests.
In this regard, Poland’s strategic significance in China’s foreign relations is mainly reflected in the following points:
First, as a participant in and shaper of the security architecture of the Central and Eastern European region and even Europe, Poland is of strategic significance for the implementation of the concept and realization of the vision of the global security initiative advocated by China. The Russia-Ukraine conflict involves not only Russia and Ukraine, but also the security interests of a wide range of Central and Eastern European countries represented by Poland. Poland, with its strong military power in the region, significant political influence in the eastern part of the European Union, and high security sensitivity, has an indispensable voice in the political settlement of the conflict. again visited Russia, EU headquarters, Poland, Ukraine, Germany and France to conduct a second round of shuttle diplomacy on promoting a political solution to the Ukrainian crisis. Among them, Poland, as the only visiting country in the Central and Eastern European region, was the main target of China’s peace tour, together with Germany and France.
Secondly, Poland, as a center of power in the new Europe and a rising middle power, has a significant leading role to play in the stability of China’s cooperation with CEE countries and the healthy development of China-EU relations. Whether in terms of the proportion of votes in the EU’s core institutions and the European Commission, or in terms of influence in the politics of the European Parliament’s party groups, politicians or political parties from Poland have had, or are having, a significant impact. For example, the sixth largest party group in the 2019 parliamentary elections, the Party of European Conservatives and Reformists (PECR). Poland’s former ruling party, Law and Justice, dominates this group. The party’s political ideas and diplomatic tendencies can be used to influence EU proposals through the platform of parliamentary groups. The current ruling party, Civic Platform, belongs to the European People’s Party (EPP), with 11 seats, ranking third; and the current Polish Prime Minister, Mr. Tusk, has just stepped down from the presidency of the EPP, which is enough to reflect the influence of the current ruling party in the European Parliamentary Party Groups (EPGs). In addition, Poland has a strong demonstration effect on the continuous promotion of China-CEE cooperation. The reason is that Poland is not only China’s largest country in the CEE region in terms of bilateral trade volume, but also the only two countries in the region with which China has established a comprehensive strategic partnership, one of which is Poland and the other is Hungary. Poland also hosted the first China-Central and Eastern European Leaders’ Summit, playing an irreplaceable role in starting a new journey of practical cooperation between China and CEE countries.
Thirdly, Poland, with its advantageous location in the heart of Eurasia, the political prestige of a subregional power and the consumption potential of an emerging market, plays an important role in supporting the cross-regional practice of the Belt and Road Initiative, which aims at promoting policy communication, road connectivity, smooth trade, currency circulation and people-to-people communication. Poland is an important strategic pivot country of the Asia-Europe Continental Bridge under China’s “Belt and Road” initiative, a transit point for China’s access to the EU market and one of the main transit points of the China-EU liner, and the first Central and Eastern European country to apply for membership in the China-led Asian Investment Bank (AIIB) as a founding member. President Xi Jinping met with leaders of 16 Central and Eastern European countries who came to China to attend the fourth China-Central and Eastern European Leaders’ Meeting at the Great Hall of the People in Beijing. After the meeting, the heads of state of China and Poland signed a memorandum of understanding on jointly promoting the construction of the “Belt and Road”.
In view of Poland’s tradition of independent diplomacy, its unique role in regional affairs and its strategic position in China’s overall pattern of foreign relations, the Chinese people are pleased to see, and look forward to seeing, Poland’s persistent adherence to the path of independent diplomacy, and its ability to make full use of its economic, political and geopolitical advantages to play the role of an advocate of peace and a builder of peace in the region’s security affairs. In addition to that, from the perspective of global governance, we are also looking forward to seeing Poland’s continued adherence to its independent diplomatic path. In addition, from the perspective of global governance, we expect Poland to continue to support China’s Belt and Road Initiative, as well as the Global Development Initiative, the Global Security Initiative and the Global Governance Initiative, which are aimed at maintaining fairness and justice in global governance. “We expect Poland to continue to support China’s Belt and Road Initiative, as well as the Global Development Initiative, the Global Security Initiative and the Global Civilization Initiative, which are aimed at upholding fairness and justice in global governance, and to work together to promote the development of the global governance system in the direction of greater equity, justice, democracy and security.
IV. Tomorrow’s Sino-Polish Relations: The Ideological Roots of China’s Diplomacy and Some of China’s Expectations for the New Polish Government
Whether from the early post-World War II period, when China and Poland were based on similar economic, political and social development systems, or from Poland’s shift to a European path of development after the dramatic changes in Eastern Europe, China has always adhered to the principle of “peaceful coexistence and seeking common ground while reserving differences” in its relations with Poland. The ideological source of this principle of diplomacy is deeply rooted in China’s traditional culture since ancient times, which is based on the world concept of pursuing harmony, loving peace, advocating harmony, respecting trust and benevolence, making good friends and neighbors, and making peace with all nations. Throughout China’s historical evolution, thousands of years of civilization have constructed a culture of “harmony” in which the Chinese people take “harmony” as a value and “cooperation” as a source. “The culture of “harmony” embodies the cosmic view of the unity of man and heaven, the international view of harmony among nations, the social view of harmony and difference, and the moral view of harmony and goodness of the human heart. China’s outstanding traditional culture is rich in the cultural genes of “benevolence”, “love” and “harmony”.[42] Looking ahead, we remain confident and expectant about the prospects of China-Poland relations. We expect the new Polish government under the leadership of Mr. Tusk to continue to uphold the concept of pragmatism and develop Polish-Chinese relations.
(i) Cultural roots of Chinese diplomatic thought
1. The concept of cooperation based on the value of “harmony”
Loving peace and opposing war are traditional virtues of the Chinese nation. China’s ancient military book, Methods of Sima(《司马法》), is not only a warning to ancient emperors on how to rule the country, but also reflects the peace-loving cultural DNA of the Chinese people. President Xi Jinping has quoted on many international occasions the phrase “Although a country is large, a warlike state will surely perish,” which is from the “Sima Fa”, and which expresses the Chinese people’s traditional belief that the desire for peace and the opposition to war are not empty slogans to be talked about in a generalized manner, nor are they a kind of diplomatic rhetoric, but rather, they are deeply embedded in the bloodline of the Chinese nation. Instead, it is a consistent value that has been deeply embedded in the blood of the Chinese nation and has become China’s basic philosophy in handling international relations. [43]Throughout the history of mankind, all countries that have attempted to dominate the world by force have ended up in failure. The logic that a strong country must be hegemonic is only in line with the old Western-dominated concept of international political power, which is a zero-sum game. China has never subscribed to the historical logic that a strong country must be hegemonic, but rather advocates the active promotion of a new concept of international power based on the global value of a community with a shared future for mankind. This view of power is based on the concepts of seeking common ground while reserving differences, making peace with differences, treating each other as equals, and pursuing win-win situations and common development.
2. The moral concept of “benevolence” as one’s own duty
The worldview of benevolence and righteousness advocates the equality of all countries, big or small, strong or weak, and resolutely opposes any hegemonic bullying behavior. To this end, President Xi Jinping has made it clear on many international occasions that China is firmly committed to working with all countries in the world to build a community of human destiny, because only when the world is well can China be well. [8]From these concepts and initiatives, we can see that the value of “benevolence” constitutes one of the ideological cores of China’s ethical outlook, and that this ethical outlook has also been internalized as the basis for China’s partnership in body, speech and action.
3. The concept of “love for one another and mutual benefit”.
In Mozi《墨子》, there is a saying that “love one another and benefit one another”. “Love one another” is relative to “hate one another”, meaning that we should love all people equally, regardless of their affinity, richness, wealth, size, strength or weakness. The term “love one another” was proposed in relation to the term “hate one another”, meaning that we should love all people equally, regardless of their affinity, richness, wealth, power, and strength. The relationship between “love one another and benefit one another” is one of opposites and unity, but also of complementarity and interdependence. In international relations, “love one another” means that all countries should be treated equally in the international community, regardless of their size, strength and status; “mutual benefit” advocates that countries should abandon the zero-sum game mentality and join hands to seek common welfare and development, and oppose world war. The idea of “love one another and benefit one another” has become one of the spiritual cores and sources of China’s concept of international justice and benefit.
(ii) Sino-Polish relations moving forward in seeking common ground while reserving differences
After the dramatic changes in Eastern Europe, although China and Poland have embarked on differentiated paths in terms of their economic, social and political development models, the two countries share the same aspirations for peace and development: only with world and regional peace can a country have a stable external development environment, and only with sustained economic development can its people lead a happy life. In the Chinese worldview, the differences between the cultures and civilizations of different countries should not be the root cause of the conflict described in the “Clash of Civilizations Theory”, but should be made to become the overlapping consensus sought between civilizations, on the basis of which the mutual borrowing of the cultures and civilizations of different countries can be realized. As the old Chinese saying goes, ” When I walk along with two others, they may serve me as my teachers. I will select their good qualities and follow them, their bad qualities and avoid.” This means that the culture and civilization of each nation and country have unique value for the evolution of world civilization, and that what is national is also global; conversely, what is global is also national. There should be no distinction between national cultures and world civilization in terms of superiority or inferiority, but rather equality and mutual learning.
In discussing the present and future of China-Poland relations on the basis of the above concepts, “peaceful coexistence, seeking common ground while reserving differences, respecting each other’s core interests and concerns, and respecting each other’s development paths in accordance with their national conditions” is not only embodied in the 1997 Joint Communiqué of the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Poland, but also practiced under the framework of the “China-CEE Cooperation Mechanism” and the “Belt and Road Initiative”. “It is also practiced under the framework of the China-Central and Eastern European Cooperation Mechanism and the Belt and Road Initiative, and will become a fundamental guideline for the direction of relations between China and Poland. As early as April 18, 1955, the Asian-African Conference (AAC), with the participation of 29 countries, opened in the Indonesian mountain town of Bandung. Premier Zhou Enlai, the Foreign Minister of China, led the Chinese delegation to the Bandung Conference, and made an important contribution to the success of the Conference by proposing and adhering to the principle of “seeking common ground while reserving differences”.
In addition to the high degree of consensus between China and Poland on the above criteria, the similar traumatic memories of anti-imperialism and anti-colonialism have also created a strong sense of empathy between the two peoples. Whether in Chinese academia or among the general public, these groups have strong sympathy for the traumas suffered by Poland in its history, as well as admiration for the Polish nation’s spirit of defying power, daring to struggle, and courageously pursuing freedom and democracy. In recent years, the world has been in a state of turmoil, and the trend of peace and development seems to have been replaced by the pursuit of security and development. Especially for Poland, which is deep in the middle, security anxiety has increased. As for China, it is also suffering from economic suppression and political stigmatization by the hegemonic powers led by the United States, and a series of mutually beneficial and win-win development concepts and practices advocated by China have been ” Pan-Securitized” by the United States as the leader of some countries, spreading China’s threat theory. But in fact, to understand the fundamental intention of a country’s diplomacy, it is necessary to go back to the country’s history and traditional strategic culture. As the theory of narratology emphasizes, autobiographical narratives can be used by politicians to mobilize the masses, but the scripts of autobiographical narratives are often not easy to distort.
Looking ahead, we remain confident and expectant about the prospects of Sino-Polish relations. 2023 ended with the coming to power of the Tusk government under the Civic Platform party. The ideology of the Tusk coalition government and its experience in power between 2007 and 2014 suggest that Tusk and his government team are characterized by a remarkable degree of centrism and pragmatism, which is at odds with the political conservatism and ultranationalist tendencies of the Law and Justice Party government. However, the Tusk government, which is relatively liberal, is more in line with the European Union’s values of “freedom, democracy, rule of law, and human rights”, which have liberal overtones. The above may lead to the new government’s policy toward China being characterized by two sides. A direct proof of this is that in 2008, the Tusk government under the Civic Platform refused to attend the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing because of human rights issues. However, it cannot be denied that the Tusk government’s (2007-2014) policy towards China during its last term of office was still based on pragmatic cooperation, and remained on the diplomatic track of “peaceful coexistence and seeking common ground while reserving differences”, as set out in the 1997 Sino-Polish Joint Communiqué. Soon after, in 2012, the Tusk government not only became one of the initiators of the opening of the China-CEE cooperation mechanism, but also hosted the first Leaders’ Summit, and the outbreak of the Crimea Crisis in 2014 failed to stop the process of pragmatic cooperation between the governments of the two countries in their quest for peace and development. Based on the above, we have good reasons to believe and expect that the Civic Platform government in its new term of office will continue the diplomatic relations between China and Poland since the joint communiqué was issued in 1997, take the fundamental interests of its own people as the ultimate goal of diplomacy, take the improvement of people’s well-being as the value of diplomacy, seek a consensus for development on the path of differentiation, respect each other’s different political systems and paths of development, and respect and support each other’s major interests and concerns. support the reasonable demands of both sides in their major interests and concerns. As a country with a profound peace-loving tradition, China expects the new Polish government to continue to play an active role in the regional and world order, that is heading towards insecurity, by acting as a mediator in conflicts and wars, opposing the use of war as a means to end war, and advocating the use of political and diplomatic means to resolve crises and conflicts.
I hope that the dear Polish readers of this article will come to China more often, get closer to China, and learn about the deep love of peace in Chinese history and traditional culture.
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[22] For example, the famous Chinese scholar Wang Yizhou classified Poland among the middle powers in a press interview. See: “These countries are not simple! They have a common name: Middle Powers,” Newsweek, October 31, 2021, https://new.qq.com/rain/a/20211031A09DBU00
[23] Wang Hongyi, “Poland’s Middle Power Diplomacy – Identity Positioning, Role Expectations and Diplomatic Preferences”, Russia Studies,No.2,2020.
[24] Wang, Hongyi, “Poland’s Middle Power Diplomacy – Identity Orientation, Role Expectations, and Diplomatic Preferences,” Russian Studies, No. 2, 2020.
[25] Xu Gang, “Chinese (Central) East European Studies in the 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Preliminary Thoughts Based on Discipline Construction,” Russian East European Central Asian Studies, No. 1, 2020.
[26] Celebrating the 70th Anniversary of CWS，CNN Shanghai News, 11th June 2021,https://www.sh.chinanews.com.cn/chanjing/2021-06-11/88314.shtml
[27] Xi Jinping visits Poland, China and Poland upgrade to comprehensive strategic partnership, June 21, 2016, CCTV, https://news.cnr.cn/native/gd/20160621/t20160621_522452452.shtml
[28]项昊宇，中国的“伙伴”关系有哪些？，载《学习时报》2023年10月9日第3版。
[29] 丁建庭，中国的“伙伴关系”有多少种？关系“最铁”是哪种？，2023年9月16日，南方网，https://news.southcn.com/node_179d29f1ce/062262904b.shtml
[30] China-Poland Relations, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, https://www.mfa.gov.cn/web/gjhdq_676201/gj_676203/oz_678770/1206_679012/sbgx_679016/
[31] Joint Communiqué of the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Poland, Official Website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, November 7, 2000, http://new.fmprc.gov.cn/web/gjhdq_676201/gj_676203/oz_678770/1206_679012/1207_679024/ 200011/t20001107_9333279.shtml
[32] https://www.mfa.gov.cn/web/gjhdq_676201/gjhdqzz_681964/1206_679930/sbgx_679934/
[33] Joint Declaration of the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Poland, Bulletin of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, No. 22, 2004, https://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2004/content_62850.htm
[34] “Louis Cox-Brusseau, Sleeping Dragon No Longer: China’s Influence in Central Europe”, EUROPEUM Institute for European Policy, December 2019, pp. 2-3. https://sha.static.vipsite.cn/media/thinktank/attachments/f4bc4e824628b294ddc4cf6d5a96a48b. pdf
[35] “Tusk: Chiny odblokują import polskiej żywności”, Telewizja Polska, October 23, 2008, https://www.tvp.info/315559/ tusk-chiny-odblokuja-import-polskiej-zywnosci#!.
[36] Joint Statement of China and Poland on the Establishment of a Strategic Partnership (Full Text), Official Website of the Central People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China, Dec. 20, 2011, https://www.gov.cn/jrzg/2011-12/20/content_2025074.htm
[37] Poland: A “Gateway” to China and Europe in Response to China’s “Belt and Road” Initiative, Information Office of the State Council website, June 25, 2015, http://www.scio.gov.cn/ztk/wh/slxy/. 31200/Document/1438702/1438702.htm.
[38] Liu Zuokui, “China-Central and Eastern European Cooperation under the Great Changes”, China International Studies, No. 2, 2020.（刘作奎：大变局下的“中国-中东欧国家合作”，《国际问题研究》，2020年第2期。）
[39] China-Europe shuttle train deepens mutually beneficial win-win cooperation between China and Poland, People’s Daily Online, December 10, 2023, http://world.people.com.cn/n1/2023/1210/c1002-40135455.html
[40] China-Central and Eastern European Countries Cooperation Boosts Belt and Road Construction, People’s Daily Online, February 23, 2018, http://opinion.people.com.cn/n1/2018/0223/c1003-29829269.html
[41] Xi Jinping Talks with Polish President Duda, Two Heads of State Agree to Enhance the Development of China-Poland Strategic Partnership, November 25, 2015, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, https://www.mfa.gov.cn/web/gjhdq_676201/gj_676203/oz_678770/1206_679012/ xgxw_679018/201511/t20151125_9333221.shtml
[42] The profound connotation and contemporary value of Xi Jinping’s thought on the community of human destiny, People’s Daily Online, December 12, 2017, http://world.people.com.cn/n1/2017/1212/c1002-29702257.html.
[43] People’s Daily Commentary Department, Xi Jinping Uses Dictionaries (Second Series), People’s Daily Press, 2018, p. 155.
[44] People’s Daily Commentary Department, Xi Jinping Uses Dictionaries (Second Series), People’s Daily Press, 2018, pp. 181-182.
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